The aftermath of a data breach represents one of the most critical periods in an organization’s cybersecurity lifecycle, particularly when it comes to protecting account recovery processes and safeguarding user identities from further compromise. While immediate breach containment typically dominates organizational attention, the long-term security of account recovery mechanisms often receives insufficient scrutiny despite being a primary vector for attackers seeking to regain or expand their foothold within compromised systems. This comprehensive analysis examines the multifaceted dimensions of account recovery hardening following a data breach, with particular emphasis on proactive personal information monitoring, breach response frameworks, authentication resilience, and the protective measures that must be implemented to prevent cascading account takeovers that can devastate both individual users and organizational security postures.
The significance of account recovery hardening cannot be overstated, as research indicates that attackers deliberately target recovery processes to circumvent initial authentication defenses. The vulnerability of account recovery lies not in its necessity—users legitimately lose access to their accounts and require reliable mechanisms to regain entry—but rather in the often-inadequate security measures that organizations implement to verify legitimate users during the recovery process. When a data breach has already compromised sensitive personal information including names, addresses, Social Security numbers, email addresses, and phone numbers, the risk multiplies exponentially because attackers now possess the exact data points that many recovery processes use for identity verification.
Understanding the Convergence of Data Breaches and Account Recovery Vulnerabilities
The Multi-Stage Attack Pattern Following Data Breach
Data breaches fundamentally alter the threat landscape surrounding account recovery by providing attackers with authenticated lists of valid users and often the very data points that organizations use to verify identity during recovery flows. The typical progression of an attack following a data breach involves distinct phases that begin with breach discovery and detection, move through containment efforts, but then continue into a secondary attack phase where compromised credentials and exposed personal information become weaponized against account recovery systems. Understanding this progression is essential for designing effective hardening strategies because each phase presents distinct vulnerabilities and opportunities for intervention.
The initial data exfiltration or discovery phase establishes the attacker’s advantage by providing them with database dumps containing usernames, email addresses, hashed or plaintext passwords, and potentially verification data such as security questions, phone numbers, or address information. This process is often referred to as a data breach. Once organizations detect the breach and begin their response procedures, a critical window exists where legitimate users have not yet secured their accounts but attackers have already obtained the necessary information to initiate recovery attempts. The attackers’ knowledge advantage at this point is substantial—they know which users exist, they possess personal information that might be used in verification, and they understand that organizations are in reactive mode dealing with immediate containment rather than focusing resources on recovery protection.
A particularly insidious aspect of post-breach account recovery attacks involves what researchers term “hidden risks” in account recovery processes, particularly those that have transitioned to passwordless authentication systems. Organizations that implemented passwordless authentication to improve security often fail to harden the corresponding account recovery mechanisms with equivalent rigor, creating a situation where the most sophisticated authentication method becomes vulnerable through its least-hardened component—the recovery process itself. This represents a fundamental security principle violation: security is only as strong as its weakest link, and account recovery frequently becomes that weak link.
The Personal Information Leverage in Post-Breach Scenarios
When a breach exposes personal information including names, addresses, Social Security numbers, and other identifying data, attackers gain leverage over account recovery systems that rely on knowledge-based authentication or out-of-band verification methods. The previously mentioned scenario where a user loses access to their email address or phone number becomes exponentially more dangerous post-breach because attackers can now use the exposed email address or phone number in recovery flows, potentially triggering account takeovers through SIM swapping, email compromise, or social engineering.
The interconnected nature of modern digital identity means that compromising one recovery factor often provides pathways to compromise others. For example, if an attacker gains access to an email address through the recovered email credentials during recovery, they can then use that email to recover other accounts. This cascading effect transforms a single breach into a potential identity theft catastrophe affecting multiple services and platforms. Organizations must therefore implement hardening strategies that recognize and interrupt these cascading compromise patterns.
Organizational Response Framework: Immediate and Extended Breach Response Priorities
Initial Containment and the Critical First 72 Hours
The Federal Trade Commission’s guidance on data breach response establishes that immediate actions within the first three days following breach discovery are essential for minimizing damage and establishing control over the security incident. During this critical period, organizations must simultaneously manage containment of the active breach, notification of affected parties, and initiation of account recovery hardening measures. The coordination of these activities requires a comprehensive incident response structure that designates clear responsibilities and decision-making authority.
The immediate technical response involves taking affected equipment offline but preserving forensic evidence by not powering down machines until experts can examine them. Simultaneously, organizations must update credentials and passwords for all authorized users, recognizing that longer a hacker retains access to valid credentials, the greater the risk of lateral movement and expanded data exfiltration. This credential reset must be comprehensive and mandatory, not optional, because users frequently postpone security updates they perceive as inconvenient or non-urgent.
Critically important during this phase is the identification of which personal information was actually compromised, as this determination drives the specific hardening strategies required for account recovery protection. Different categories of compromised data trigger different response requirements under various regulatory frameworks. For instance, compromise of Social Security numbers requires different protective measures than compromise of email addresses alone, though both pose recovery risks.
Risk Assessment and Vulnerability Identification in Recovery Processes
Following immediate containment, organizations must conduct a thorough assessment of their account recovery systems to identify vulnerabilities that could be exploited given the specific personal information that was compromised. This assessment should evaluate the following dimensions of recovery security: the authentication factors required to initiate recovery, the verification methods used to confirm identity, the channels through which recovery codes or links are delivered, the mechanisms for resetting Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA) settings, and the logging and monitoring systems that can detect suspicious recovery attempts.
The NIST framework for detecting, responding to, and recovering from data breaches emphasizes that organizations must establish comprehensive monitoring capabilities that track not only compromised accounts but also suspicious account recovery attempts that may indicate ongoing attack activity. These monitoring capabilities should identify patterns such as multiple failed recovery attempts from unusual geographic locations, recovery attempts initiated immediately after breach notification, or recovery attempts targeting high-value accounts such as administrative users.
One particularly important vulnerability assessment area involves evaluating whether current account recovery mechanisms rely on security questions or other knowledge-based factors that might have been exposed in the breach or can be easily researched. Research demonstrates that traditional security questions remain highly vulnerable to attack, with answers often discoverable through social media research, public records, or simple guessing. When these questions are combined with compromised personal information, their security value approaches zero.
Advanced Authentication Factors in Hardened Recovery Processes
Transition from Single-Factor to Multi-Factor Recovery Verification
One of the most significant findings from post-breach security research is that organizations must immediately transition account recovery processes from single-factor to multi-factor verification, even when this creates temporary friction for legitimate users attempting recovery. The mathematical reality of authentication security is straightforward: compromising a single authentication factor requires only defeating one security mechanism, while compromising two or more factors requires defeating multiple independent mechanisms, substantially increasing the attacker’s effort and reducing the likelihood of successful account takeover.
The specific implementation of multi-factor recovery should prioritize factors that cannot be compromised through the data that was exposed in the breach. If email addresses and phone numbers were compromised, recovery processes that rely exclusively on emailed reset links or SMS-delivered codes become substantially weakened. Organizations should therefore consider supplementing traditional factors with more resistant authentication methods such as biometric verification, hardware security keys, or previously established trusted devices.
The concept of “something you have,” “something you know,” and “something you are” provides a useful framework for evaluating recovery factor diversity. If a breach compromised “something you know” (security questions, previously used passwords), recovery should heavily weight “something you have” (hardware keys, previously trusted devices) or “something you are” (biometric verification). This ensures that even if attackers possess knowledge-based factors, they cannot complete recovery without additional factors they cannot possess.
Phishing-Resistant Multi-Factor Authentication in Recovery Flows
Recovery processes that employ phishing-resistant MFA methods represent a substantially elevated security posture compared to traditional SMS-based or push notification approaches. Phishing-resistant MFA methods such as FIDO2/WebAuthn security keys or passkeys eliminate the vulnerability to phishing attacks that compromise traditional MFA by tying authentication to the specific website or service through public-key cryptography rather than relying on codes that can be intercepted or social engineering that can convince users to reveal verification information.
The implementation of phishing-resistant recovery factors is particularly important post-breach because attackers often combine compromised credentials with sophisticated phishing campaigns targeting account recovery flows. A user who receives a legitimate-looking recovery email but clicks a malicious link instead of the authentic one may unknowingly provide attackers with access to verification information. Phishing-resistant factors eliminate this vulnerability because authentication cannot succeed through phishing—the physical security key or biometric cannot be extracted through social engineering alone.
Organizations implementing phishing-resistant recovery methods should recognize that this represents one of the most important security investments available post-breach. The National Institute of Standards and Technology and federal agencies have prioritized phishing-resistant MFA implementation specifically because of its demonstrated effectiveness against the credential-based attacks that dominate modern threat landscapes. While implementation requires user education and device distribution, the security benefits substantially justify these investments.
Hardware Security Keys and Device-Bound Recovery
Hardware security keys such as FIDO2-compliant devices provide account recovery protection through cryptographic binding between the user’s identity and a physical device that cannot be remotely compromised. When implemented as a recovery factor, hardware keys ensure that account recovery can only succeed with physical possession of the device, a requirement that dramatically reduces account takeover risk even when other authentication factors are compromised.
However, organizations implementing hardware security keys for recovery must also implement recovery mechanisms for users who lose or no longer have access to their physical keys. Providing backup security keys that users store in secure locations addresses this concern, though organizations must ensure that backup key generation, distribution, and storage occur through secure processes. The Eucleak vulnerability demonstrated through research on YubiKey devices illustrates that even highly secure hardware can be vulnerable to sophisticated attacks if users do not implement appropriate physical security measures for key storage.
Recovery processes for users who have lost access to hardware keys should employ additional verification factors such as identity proofing, biometric verification, or manual review by trained support staff who can verify identity through document authentication or video verification calls. The goal is to ensure that users can eventually recover access while maintaining security standards that prevent attackers from using “lost device” scenarios as pretexts for account takeover.
Backup Authentication and Recovery Code Management
Implementation and Security of Backup Codes
Backup recovery codes represent a crucial component of multi-factor recovery systems because they provide a fallback mechanism for users who lose access to primary authentication methods. These one-time use codes should be generated during MFA setup and provided to users immediately, with clear instructions on secure storage. The security of backup codes depends critically on users storing them in secure locations—typically password managers, physical secure storage, or printed documents stored safely rather than plaintext files on desktop computers.
Post-breach, organizations should ensure that users understand the importance of updating or regenerating backup codes, particularly if there is any possibility that codes were captured through the breach or if the user suspects their storage location may have been compromised. Users who cannot locate their backup codes should be guided through recovery processes that employ alternative authentication factors rather than being locked out of their accounts permanently.
The technical implementation of backup codes should enforce strict one-time use requirements, preventing attackers from reusing codes even if they are intercepted or obtained through social engineering. Database systems storing backup codes should maintain records of which codes have been used, immediately invalidating them upon first use to prevent replay attacks. Additionally, backup codes should be displayed to users only once during setup, with clear warnings about the importance of secure storage and the implications of losing access to stored codes.
Zero-Knowledge Recovery Mechanisms
An increasingly important innovation in account recovery security involves zero-knowledge recovery mechanisms where recovery codes or keys are generated and stored by the user in such a way that the service provider has no knowledge of the recovery credential. TeamViewer’s implementation of zero-knowledge account recovery exemplifies this approach—a 64-character recovery code is generated, provided to the user, and then never transmitted back to the service provider or stored in company systems.
This approach substantially improves security post-breach because even if attackers compromise the service provider’s systems, they cannot obtain the recovery codes because the service provider never possesses them. Users who successfully store and protect their zero-knowledge recovery codes can regain access without the service provider needing to verify their identity through other means. The limitation of this approach is that users bear complete responsibility for code storage and protection, and permanently lose access to their accounts if they cannot locate stored codes.
The implementation of zero-knowledge recovery mechanisms provides organizations with a security option that effectively immunizes account recovery from many post-breach risks because the recovery credentials are never stored in systems that could be breached. Organizations should clearly communicate to users that this approach requires personal responsibility for code protection but provides substantially enhanced security in exchange for that responsibility.
Real-Time Monitoring and Anomaly Detection in Recovery Systems
Behavioral Baseline Establishment and Deviation Detection
Organizations implementing comprehensive account recovery hardening must establish behavioral baselines that document normal patterns of account recovery attempts, legitimate user characteristics, and typical recovery request sources. With these baselines established, real-time monitoring systems can identify anomalies that indicate potential account takeover attempts disguised as legitimate recovery requests.
Anomaly detection in recovery systems should evaluate multiple contextual factors simultaneously, including geographic location of recovery requests, timing relative to user activity patterns, device characteristics, IP address reputation, previous recovery patterns, and correlations with other suspicious account activity. A recovery request from a user’s established home location during normal hours represents lower risk than a recovery request from an unrecognized geographic location at 3 AM using a VPN connection or Tor exit node. Organizations can use machine learning algorithms trained on legitimate recovery patterns to identify suspicious deviations that warrant additional verification.
The implementation of risk-based or adaptive authentication in recovery flows enables organizations to dynamically adjust verification requirements based on risk assessment. Lower-risk recovery attempts might proceed with single-factor verification, while higher-risk attempts automatically escalate to require multiple verification factors, identity proofing, or manual review. This approach balances security and user experience by applying proportional security measures rather than universally strict requirements that might frustrate legitimate users while still blocking the highest-risk attacks.
Detection of Specific Attack Patterns
Post-breach monitoring should specifically watch for attack patterns known to follow data breaches, including credential stuffing attempts that use the exposed username and password combinations against multiple services. Organizations should implement monitoring that identifies when account recovery is initiated immediately following breach notification, as this represents a high-risk scenario indicating possible attacker exploitation of the breach.
SIM swapping attacks represent a particularly dangerous attack pattern in recovery systems that rely on SMS or phone-based verification. Monitoring systems should identify recovery requests that succeed through SMS verification from unusual geographic locations or following recent phone number changes. Alerts should be generated when recovery attempts are made using phone numbers associated with high-value accounts or privileged users.
Email compromise scenarios represent another high-risk recovery attack pattern where attackers first compromise the email address associated with the account and then use that email access to complete recovery flows. Monitoring should identify recovery attempts that originate from IP addresses significantly different from those associated with legitimate email activity or when email forwarding rules are suddenly modified around the time of recovery requests.
Personal Information Monitoring and Protective Measures Following Breach
Credit Monitoring and Fraud Alert Implementation
Once a data breach has exposed financial information including Social Security numbers, account numbers, or other payment data, individuals should immediately engage credit monitoring services to detect unauthorized account creation or credit line extensions in their name. Credit monitoring services track changes to credit reports and alert consumers to new accounts being opened, credit inquiries, and changes to account information—all of which could indicate identity theft attempts leveraging the compromised personal information.
The Federal Trade Commission recommends that individuals affected by breaches involving financial information should place fraud alerts on their credit reports through the three major credit reporting agencies: Equifax, Experian, and TransUnion. A fraud alert instructs credit agencies and lenders to take extra verification steps before issuing credit, making it more difficult for identity thieves to open accounts in the victim’s name. Placing fraud alerts is free and does not negatively impact credit scores.
Security freezes provide an additional layer of protection by restricting who can access credit reports to open new accounts. While fraud alerts encourage additional verification, security freezes actually prevent access to credit reports except in specific circumstances. Security freezes must be placed separately with each of the three major credit reporting agencies but are free to implement and maintain. Individuals should understand that security freezes may need to be temporarily lifted if they legitimately need to apply for credit, but this process can be completed online through the credit agencies.
Monitoring for Compromised Credentials in Breach Databases
Individuals should proactively monitor whether their credentials have appeared in publicly disclosed breaches using services such as HaveIBeenPwned, which aggregates breach databases and allows users to check if their email addresses have been compromised. Password managers frequently offer notifications when credentials associated with a user’s account appear in breach disclosures, enabling immediate password changes before attackers can weaponize the exposed credentials.
Organizations should implement notification mechanisms that inform employees and customers when their credentials appear in breach databases, enabling rapid response before attackers can exploit the exposed information in account takeover attacks. This proactive notification complements breach notification obligations by extending monitoring beyond the initial breach to detect when exposed credentials appear in secondary breach disclosures or dark web marketplaces.
Identity Theft Protection Services
Organizations should offer at least one year of free identity theft protection or identity restoration services to individuals affected by breaches that exposed Social Security numbers or financial information. These services go beyond credit monitoring by providing identity theft insurance, rapid response to fraudulent account creation, and professional assistance in resolving identity theft impacts.
Professional identity theft protection services employed by dedicated experts provide substantial value by handling the complex process of disputing fraudulent accounts, contacting creditors, and coordinating with credit agencies.IDX identity theft protection When identity theft occurs, victims often find the recovery process overwhelming and time-consuming without professional assistance. Organizations demonstrating commitment to affected individuals through comprehensive identity protection services substantially improve customer trust and reduce legal exposure.
Strengthened Access Control and Privilege Management Post-Breach
Principle of Least Privilege in Account Recovery Administration
Organizations should immediately audit and restrict access to account recovery administration functions following a data breach, implementing the principle of least privilege to ensure that only essential personnel can modify recovery settings, approve recovery requests, or access recovery codes. The broader principle of least privilege requires that users receive only the minimum level of access necessary to perform their jobs, and this principle becomes especially critical in sensitive areas such as account recovery administration where the ability to approve recovery requests represents significant power over user accounts.
Following a breach, organizations often discover that account recovery administration functions have been excessively permissive, with multiple employees possessing the ability to approve recovery requests without proper authorization controls. Administrative review should establish role-based access control where different employees receive different privileges based on documented job requirements. Service desk personnel might be able to initiate recovery processes but cannot approve them, while supervisory personnel must approve recovery requests above certain risk thresholds, and only security leadership can approve recovery for administrative accounts.
Segregation of Duties in Recovery Authorization
Organizations should implement segregation of duties where the employee who receives a recovery request is not the same individual who verifies identity and approves the recovery, and that person is not the same individual who executes the technical recovery action. This multi-person authorization requirement for recovery dramatically reduces the risk that a single compromised employee or social engineering victim can unilaterally approve fraudulent recovery requests.
The implementation of segregation of duties requires clear authorization workflows, audit trails documenting each step in the recovery process, and periodic audits verifying that segregation of duties requirements are consistently followed. When breaches reveal that segregation of duties was not implemented, organizations should immediately prioritize establishing these controls to prevent attackers or malicious insiders from exploiting recovery processes.
Communications and User Education Following Breach
Comprehensive Breach Notification Content and Guidance
Breach notification communications should provide specific, actionable guidance regarding account recovery protection that acknowledges the risks created by the specific information that was compromised. Generic breach notifications that simply advise password changes without addressing the specific vulnerabilities created by the compromised data miss opportunities to guide users toward effective protective actions.
Communications should specifically address the personal information that was compromised and explain the specific protective actions users should take in response to that information exposure. If Social Security numbers were compromised, communications should explain that fraud alerts and security freezes should be placed on credit reports. If email addresses were compromised, communications should warn about phishing risks and advise enabling multi-factor authentication. If home addresses were compromised, communications should alert to risks of physical identity theft such as mail theft.
Organizations should provide clear guidance regarding account recovery security improvements users can implement on their own accounts. Communications should explain how to enable multi-factor authentication, set up backup recovery codes, use hardware security keys if available, and monitor accounts for suspicious activity. These recommendations should be presented as urgent security measures not optional improvements, with clear explanation of the risks created by inadequate recovery protection post-breach.
Employee Security Awareness Training
Organizations should implement targeted security awareness training addressing social engineering tactics that attackers use to compromise account recovery processes, particularly training addressing SIM swapping, phishing, and pretexting. Employees who understand these attack techniques are substantially less likely to be successfully targeted through social engineering compared to employees with no specific threat awareness.
Training should include real-world examples of recent account recovery attacks and explain specific warning signs that indicate potential attacks including unsolicited requests for verification information, requests originating from unusual locations, or requests that bypass normal authorization procedures. Interactive training that includes simulated phishing or social engineering scenarios provides substantially better learning outcomes than passive training that simply presents information.
Regulatory and Legal Obligations Following Breach
State and Federal Notification Requirements
Breach notification laws vary substantially across jurisdictions but generally require organizations to notify affected individuals “without unreasonable delay” or within specified timeframes ranging from 30 to 45 days depending on the state. California’s recent amendment to its data breach notification law establishes a 30-day notification requirement effective January 1, 2026, with 15-day notification to the state attorney general for breaches affecting more than 500 residents, establishing firm deadlines that organizations must meet.
Organizations operating across multiple states must track state-specific requirements and implement notification procedures that satisfy the most stringent requirements across all relevant jurisdictions. Many organizations implement a centralized breach notification function that develops state-specific notification content, manages notification timelines, and documents compliance with notification requirements for regulatory review.
Incident Response Plan Testing and Documentation
Post-breach, organizations should immediately review and test their incident response plans, identifying gaps and implementing improvements to ensure more effective response to future incidents. Testing through tabletop exercises that simulate breach scenarios enables teams to identify gaps in procedures, clarify roles and responsibilities, and develop the muscle memory needed for efficient crisis response. Organizations that regularly test incident response plans experience substantially lower overall breach costs compared to organizations that do not conduct regular testing.
Documentation of breach investigation, response actions taken, and vulnerabilities addressed creates both a record of compliance and a foundation for continuous improvement. This documentation becomes valuable when organizations review breaches retrospectively to identify common patterns and determine whether particular vulnerabilities repeatedly appear in multiple breach investigations.
Emerging Threats and Advanced Hardening Strategies
Account Recovery Vulnerabilities in Passwordless Systems
Research increasingly identifies that account recovery represents a significant vulnerability in passwordless authentication systems, potentially negating security benefits gained through sophisticated authentication mechanisms. When organizations implement passwordless authentication using methods such as passkeys or biometrics but then provide recovery mechanisms that revert to password-based authentication or other less secure methods, the overall system security is weakened to the level of the weakest component—the recovery process.
Passwordless recovery mechanisms require equivalent sophistication to the primary authentication methods they support. Recovery systems that rely on passwords, security questions, or email-based magic links represent dramatic security downgrades compared to passkey-based primary authentication. Organizations implementing passwordless authentication must simultaneously implement passwordless recovery using methods such as backup passkeys, biometric verification on backup devices, or out-of-band verification through already-authenticated channels.
SIM Swapping and Telecom Vulnerabilities
SIM swapping attacks where adversaries convince mobile carriers to transfer phone numbers to SIM cards they control represent an increasingly significant threat to account recovery systems that rely on phone-based verification methods. Attackers obtain access to account recovery flows and trigger SMS delivery of recovery codes or calls with verification information, then intercept these communications through the compromised phone number.
Mitigation of SIM swapping risks requires organizations to reduce dependence on SMS-based recovery methods, implement additional verification factors beyond SMS when phone-based recovery is necessary, and coordinate with mobile carriers regarding additional security measures such as PIN protections on account modifications. Organizations should educate users regarding the risks of SIM swapping and advise enabling authentication methods that do not depend on phone control.
Artificial Intelligence-Enhanced Social Engineering
Emerging research identifies that artificial intelligence technologies including voice cloning and image generation substantially enhance social engineering attacks targeting account recovery processes. Attackers can now create convincing voice deepfakes to impersonate legitimate account holders in support calls or generate high-quality fake identity documents to defeat identity verification processes.
Organizations should implement procedural controls addressing AI-enhanced social engineering including requiring multiple verification methods even within support interactions, implementing system-based verification that does not rely on human judgment of authenticity, and training support staff to recognize deepfake characteristics and request additional verification when voice authenticity is questionable. As these technologies improve, organizations should expect that human judgment alone will become insufficient for account recovery security and plan accordingly.
Forging Impenetrable Account Recovery
Account recovery hardening following data breach represents one of the most critical but frequently overlooked components of comprehensive breach response and long-term security recovery. The vulnerabilities that emerge post-breach extend far beyond the initial compromise, evolving into secondary attack vectors that weaponize exposed personal information against account recovery systems. Organizations and individuals that recognize account recovery not as a convenience feature but as a critical security component requiring protection equivalent to primary authentication mechanisms substantially reduce account takeover risk and identity theft exposure.
The most effective approach to account recovery hardening integrates multiple defensive layers including multi-factor authentication in recovery flows, phishing-resistant authentication factors, real-time monitoring for suspicious recovery patterns, segregation of duties in recovery authorization, comprehensive personal information monitoring, and ongoing employee security awareness training. Organizations that implement comprehensive recovery hardening strategies and maintain these protections as part of their ongoing security posture demonstrate substantially lower rates of post-breach account takeovers compared to organizations that treat account recovery as a secondary concern.
The regulatory landscape continues to evolve with increasingly stringent notification requirements and growing expectations that organizations will implement sophisticated security measures to protect account recovery. Organizations that take proactive approaches to account recovery security post-breach not only reduce their breach-related financial exposure but also demonstrate to customers, regulators, and stakeholders that they take security seriously and are committed to preventing cascading compromise that transforms initial breaches into identity theft epidemics affecting large populations.
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